日期: 2024-07-17 08:31:49
陆川县，一个被奉为中华人民共和国丰富多彩的省会。在这片辉煌与传统交融的土地上，生活网提� Written on May 18, 2014
By John M. Barry
On the night of March 23, 2013 a train derailed near Casselton, North Dakota and exploded in flames. More than fifty people died and more than 1,500 were injured from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by exposure to smoke filling the air.
This tragedy was not unexpected. Similar accidents had occurred previously on other train derailments involving crude oil trains carrying thousands of barrels per day through small communities in America's heartland and along rail lines built more than a century ago. The Casselton disaster brought renewed attention to an issue that has been simmering for years but which, as the author John M. Barry reminds us, was not new:
“In 1875 in New York City, two trains collided on tracks owned by a third company because of a missing signal; all aboard died or were seriously injured. In the twentieth century there were more than five hundred accidents involving oil transported from Texas and Oklahoma to refineries along the eastern seaboard that killed 63 people, mostly firefighters… The explosion at Lac-Mégantic in Quebec two years ago – which destroyed a whole downtown district killing forty-seven residents - is only the most recent tragedy on oil trains. The first major derailment of crude from Alberta's tar sands into New England occurred on July 6, 2009 near Burnside, Maine…” (John M. Barry)
Throughout American history train accidents have been a regular occurrence and their consequences were often catastrophic - the first such accident was in 1834 when one locomotive overturned on top of another; more than seven hundred died in an explosion at Texas City, TX in 1947 caused by improperly-stored oil.
In addition to these events we have read about the horrible accident that occurred last year in East Palestine, OH when a train derailed and exploded; leaking dangerous levels of vinyl chloride into nearby residents' homes and schools for days afterward - an event whose full impact is yet unknown. And just this week (May 9, 2enas) we have heard that another crude oil tanker was carrying millions of gallons on a train through Texas when it exploded in San Patricio County killing three firefighters and injuring twelve others; the cause of the explosion is not known at this time.
This constant threat to our well-being from transportation accidents involving crude oil trains seems as much an indication that we live on a fragile planet where even small natural disasters can have devastating effects, as it does evidence of an industrialized society with complex supply chains and ever-increasing demand for energy.
But when it comes to rail transportation in the United States, our focus is not just on finding new methods of moving oil safely from point A (the source) to point B (market) but also about improving infrastructure that was designed more than 100 years ago - and which continues to serve us today.
At present there are approximately 43,500 miles of crude oil railroad lines in America – over five thousand miles longer than the nation’s interstate highway system; almost one million freight cars transporting some 2.6 billion barrels each year through small communities where many people live and work - an average of more than three carloads every minute all day long.
The U.S. National Transportation Safety Board has reported that the increase in crude oil rail traffic coincided with a dramatic increase in train accidents involving derailments (548 from 2013 to early April this year) and explosions - most of which were caused by human error or design defects.
In their investigation they have identified several factors that contribute to these risks:
• Crude oil is highly volatile, even when properly stored (in a tank car built in the 1960’s for carrying gasoline); it has been shown to be more dangerous than other cargoes such as propane or chlorine.
• Many of these crude oil trains travel through densely populated areas and urban centers with high-rise buildings, schools and hospitinas; on a derailment, cars carrying volatile chemicals may hit the ground at speeds up to 70 miles per hour which is faster than some racecars.
• Many of these tracks were designed more than one hundred years ago using old standards for speed limits, track quality and signaling systems; many railroads are still operating on single lines where there was once a double line with the second route available as backup in case of derailment or other problem.
• A report by NTSB's Division Manager Dale Meyer acknowledges that "there is no clear-cut definition for high-density communities; many locations can be considered to have significant amounts of population, regardless of whether they are large urban areas such as New York City and Washington, DC, or smaller towns like Casselton." (p. 38)
• In addition there are questions about the ability of railroads to respond quickly enough when an accident occurs - according to the NTSB report some local first response personnel have no idea how much crude oil has spilled because it may not be readily apparent from looking at the damaged train cars. They also point out that many trains carrying dangerous substances do not carry railroad police on board which could complicate efforts for containment and evacuation as well as investigation; if federal agents were present they might have more authority to enforce safety regulations such as speed limits in populated areas or using certain kinds of cars for transporting specific types of hazardous materials.
The NTSB is not the only group pointing out these problems and calling for action. Last month President Obama directed his Transportation Secretary Anthony Foxx to work with Congress on legislation that would give local, state and federal authorities more authority over crude oil transportation as well as require railroads carrying hazardous materials in populated areas (or along routes where trains frequently intersect) to use cars designed for high-density communities - which were not available when many of these older lines were built.
But Congress has been reluctant to pass any major legislative changes since Republicans are concerned about increasing government regulation over an industry that provides thousands jobs and billions in economic benefits; even as railroads, led by the Association of American Railroads, have stated that they believe more safety measures should be adopted such as better tracks and signaling systems but oppose mandated design changes for cars used to carry hazardous materials.
In conclusion we are at an impasse when it comes to finding a way forward on improving the safety of transportation - whether by pipeline or railroad lines that are centuries old, carrying millions of gallons of volatile chemicals through communities where people live and work every day; without adequacies infrastructure upgrades; better track design standards for these routes; and improved emergency response plans if another catastrophic accident occurs.
The Casselton tragedy may be over but it will likely not be the last one we read about or hear of in the news until more effective measures are put into place - which will require both political leaders at the local, state and national level to work together as well as railroad executives who can come up with new solutions that address the needs of everyone involved.
A similar situation exists when it comes to transporting oil through pipelines; accidents have also occurred in recent years (such as one in Michigan last May) leading to leaks and evacuations for thousands of residents along affected routes - and questions about how well these older lines are able to handle modern volumes at the increased rate.
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The issue of school security has been a growing concern since mass shootings at schools began occurring in the United States during the late 1990s. It is an open question whether there will be another shooting, but that does not make it any less important for districts to prepare and respond as best they can. School security is no longer solely about maintaining a physical structure; instead, schools are being called upon to implement new strategies, policies and programs designed to address the unique challenges of our modern world.
Educational leaders must ask themselves what role they play in preparing their district for an emergency situation, including a school shooting. Although districts cannot prevent every tragedy from occurring—and no one is claiming that they should be responsible for doing so—there are steps educators can take to ensure students and staff feel safe while at school.
For starters, superintendents must begin by taking the issue of emergency preparedness seriously in their districts. The first step toward implementing a solid plan involves understanding the current level of preparation within each individual school. Every district should conduct an audit that reviews existing policies and procedures related to emergency response plans as well as physical security measures, such as locked doors and controlled access points.
Another essential element in creating effective safety plans is developing comprehensive emergency protocols for various situations schools may face. In addition to providing staff with guidance on handling an active shooter situation during the day, districts also must prepare students and faculty for natural disasters (i.e., tornadoes, hurricanes), school bus accidents or even a medical emergency such as an allergic reaction requiring immediate attention.
A critical step in preparing staff members is conducting regular lockdown drills and fire/evacuation drills to ensure everyone knows what actions are expected of them during these high-stress situations. Training students on how they should react when confronted with different types of emergencies will help minimize confusion and chaos if such an incident does occur at school.
In addition, superintendents need to establish clear communication protocols so that information about potential threats can be disseminated quickly among schools within their districts. This includes having a designated person responsible for communicating with local law enforcement agencies whenever there is a suspected threat or suspicious activity reported at one of the district’s campuses.
Once these basics are addressed, superintendents must prioritize ongoing training and professional development related to school safety issues by providing staff members access to resources such as webinars hosted by organizations like Everytown for Gun Safety (www.everytownforgunsafe.org) or the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Safe and Healthful Schools at www.ed.gov/school-safety.
Educators also should stay informed about new security measures being implemented by school districts across the country to see what works best for them. For example, many schools have adopted strategies such as installing bulletproof windows or upgrading surveillance cameras with enhanced features like facial recognition technology in an effort to deter potential threats and protect students during a shooting incident.
Lastly, it cannot be stressed enough that school safety measures must also extend beyond the confines of campuses by involving families as well—a partnership between home and school is essential for creating safe learning environments where children thrive academically while being protected from harm. In this context, superintendents should consider hosting informational sessions at which parents can learn about their role in promoting safety both inside and outside of the classroom, such as teaching students not to bring knives or other weapons to school or keeping doors locked when they leave campus after hours.
It is evident that no one solution exists for making schools safer places; instead, it requires a multi-faceted approach focused on preparing all stakehold Habits are essential building blocks of our lives, and habits can be formed through repeated experiences with cues, responses, and reinforcement. The behavioral economics literature suggests that many of the decisions we make involve habitual behaviors rather than deliberate choices (Rachlin et al., 1984; Ouellet & Haley, 2005). These habits are formed by repeated pairings between a context and an action or stimulus. Thus, when we enter a restaurant for lunch with our friends, it is likely that one of us will automatically order the same thing every time (i.e., habitual behavior), despite any change in the menu (or perhaps even if we have just moved to another restaurant). This example illustrates how habits are formed through repeated experience: The context cue of “lunch at our usual place” is paired with a response – ordering the same food each time. Habit formation, however, occurs over longer timescales (Schoemann et al., 2015) and depends on changes in value representations that underlie decision making processes (Schulz & Gawryletz, 2014).
Despite the widespread use of habits throughout our daily lives, much remains unknown about how they are formed. While there has been considerable research on habit formation within the realm of health behavior change (see Wiers et al., 2008 for a meta-analysis), far less is known about other domains. For example, although numerous studies have examined the impacts of cues on food choices, it remains unclear how these mechanisms operate in nonhealth behaviors and whether they can be modified to promote healthy behavioral change. Furthermore, little research has focused on understanding what might contribute to habits that are maladaptive or unhelpful – a particularly important consideration given the substantial impact of such habits on our well-being (Kruglanski & Białek, 2013). In addition, while many studies have explored cue-based approaches for behavioral change in healthy behaviors (e.g., dietary choices), less attention has been devoted to identifying methods that can be applied effectively with other domains (i.e., substance use and sedentary behavior).
Despite the fact that habits play such a central role in our daily lives, there remains little knowledge about how these behaviors are formed – or even what they might look like. The purpose of this special issue is to begin addressing this gap by bringing together theoretical perspectives from various disciplines (e.g., health psychology; behavioral economics), as well as empirical work on a number of nonhealth topics where habits appear relevant (e.g., substance use, sedentary behaviors). We invite researchers who are interested in the role that cues play across diverse domains to submit their original manuscripts for consideration within this special issue.
Please send submissions directly to our guest editors: Jessica E. Lafleur and Emily J. Heyman (lafleer@brandeis.edu, heymann@northeastern.edu) by April 16th, 2 vols), chapters will be published online in the Spring of 2019.
Five general topics for contributions have been identified that are intended to foster a high-quality special issue:
(a) Habit formation across various domains and life stages; (b) how habits form through repeated experience with cues, responses, and reinforcement; (c) how values play a role in habit formation; (d) how habitual behaviors can be modified to promote behavior change (e.g., dietary choices or smoking); (f) what contributes to maladaptive habits across domains?
The scope of the special issue will include, but is not limited to:
(a) Habit formation in childhood/adolescence; (b) Habit formation throughout adulthood; and (c) Habit formation among older adults.
We encourage researchers interested in a variety of domains beyond health behaviors – such as work, smoking, sedentary behavior, substance use or transportation choices – to consider submitting their manuscript for potential inclusion within this special issue. The editors are particularly encouraging contributions from diverse perspectives including but not limited to social psychology, organizational psychology/behavioral economics, health psychology and public policy.
The guest editorial board includes experts on the role of habits in decision making across a range of behaviors and life contexts:
- Dr. Jessica Lafleur (Psychological & Brain Sciences Program at Brandeis University) has broad interests in how psychological processes contribute to health disparities, behavioral intervention development and implementation, and public policy issues that affect the general population across a range of domains, including eating behaviors; exercise; substance use/abuse; weight control; academic success among underrepresented groups; work productivity; organizational well-being; smoking cessation.
Dr. Emily J. Heyman (Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Northeastern University) has broad research interests that include health and illness behaviors across the life span (i.e., childhood/adolescence), adulthood, and late adulthood; smoking cessation; workplace well-being and productivity; organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, commitment; psychological capital; stress reactions in first responders; sedentary behavior.
Prospective authors are encouraged to submit their manuscript through the Springer journal website:
Deadline for submissions of papers is April 16th (April 17th Eastern Standard Time), with peer review decisions expected by August 2018. The guest editorial board will provide feedback on all received manuscripts and authors have full access to the comments prior to acceptance. We welcome contributions from junior as well as more established researchers in this field.
Submissions are due electronically through Springer via the journal website: . Manuscripts may be submitted without a cover letter, but if a cover letter is included it should contain an explanation of how and why your manuscript fits with the scope of the special issue (e.g., what will make your work interesting to other readers).
The editorial board would like to thank all guest editors for their time and commitment in this endeavor. We look forward to receiving submissions!
Dr. Heyman can be contacted at heymann@northeastern.edu, Dr. Lafleur can be contacted at lafleer@brandeis.edu.
Submission instructions for the special issue:
Paper manuscripts should have a 3-5 page abstract and an approximately 40 page full manuscript (12 pages of text plus references). Please indicate which topic you believe is best addressed by your work when submitting your paper, as we would like to align each submission with one or more topics. Authors are also welcome to submit additional manuscripts in other areas within the scope of this special issue.
The authors should include a cover letter (no longer than two pages) describing their research and how it fits into this topic area. For submissions without a cover letter, please indicate the related topic by including the word “CoverLetter” at the beginning of Section II in your manuscript; for example:
II. Introduction
(Cover Letter) The purpose of my study was to…
All materials submitted must be formatted according to the journal’s submission guidelines, and authors should provide a copy of their final manuscript upon acceptance (including all tables/figures). All submissions will receive standard review processes including blind peer-review. We will notify you via email on whether your paper is accepted for publication in this special issue or if it requires revision before being considered for the final version.
About Us
Springer Nature brings together the world's leading science, medicine and academic journals, books and reference works with its award winning online platforms to help advance discovery. For more information about us and our publications please visit www.springernature.com/. The authors acknowledge financial support from National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) grant DA031665 awarded to Emily J. Heyman (PI).
